Three years earlier, under the Reagan administration, the Clark Amendment had been repealed, and the United States had again begun providing military support to UNITA. South Africa’s incursion into Angola spurred Cuba to action in support of the MPLA. A Cuban withdrawal would have to wait.South Africa had taken advantage of the unrest within the MPLA to stage a second invasion of Angola, effectively ending the détente. After having to accept a leftist regime in Angola, Pretoria was reluctant to relinquish control of Namibia because of the possibility that the first elections would bring its "traditional nemesis", SWAPO, to power. It also confirmed Castro’s earlier agreement to a 27-month timetable for the withdrawal of all Cuban troops, with a deadline of early summer 1991.Meanwhile, a peace agreement struck between the MPLA and UNITA proved ineffectual and fighting broke out yet again. For the first time the world became aware of the atrocities being committed in the regional war. (See also In the "New York Principles" the parties agreed to settle their differences through negotiations. 34, Issue 1, 2006: The Namibian Border WarSulc, Lawrence. With its 1,000 miles of coastline south of the Congo River, the country was of considerable strategic importance geopolitically, offering natural resources of tremendous value: enormous reserves of gas, oil, diamonds, iron ore, copper, and manganese, and large quantities of coffee, sugar, and tobacco.Finally, Castro was likely motivated by a desire for greater Cuban involvement in world affairs. This array of movements, each with its own political agenda, made conflicting demands on the loyalty of the native Angolans, and the factions fought not only the Portuguese but each other.After 13 years of bitter fighting that came to be known as the War of Independence, the three groups agreed to a cessation of hostilities. By 1961 an anticolonial war of resistance, initially driven by oppressed workers in the coffee and cotton fields, had broken out and was spreading quickly. Unlike during Operation Protea this operation was met with strong resistance by the FAPLA-Cuban forces leading to the fiercest fighting since independence. It was founded by members of the Portuguese Communist Party, with the backing of various Eastern-­bloc countries. After much coaxing the South African government joined negotiations in Cairo on 3 May 1988 expecting Resolution 435 to be modified. 2,000 students were granted scholarships in Cuba and by 1987 there were 4,000 Angolan students studying on the "The technical programme was the largest branch of Cuba's humanitarian mission as Angola was desperate for technicians to oversee the reconstruction projects.

Cuban intervention had a substantial impact on Southern Africa, especially in defending the MPLA's control over large parts of Angola as well as helping secure Namibia's independence.

Inevitably, negotiations would quickly collapse, and when agreements were signed, the terms were breached almost at once.THE PROLONGED ANGOLA CIVIL WAR took a heavy toll on Cuba as well. The following year a second faction, the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA), was formed, mainly by the Bakongo of northern Angola and aided in part by the United States. 244-245 (Quotations from interview with Cadelo and from Cienfuegos to Senen Casas, Havana, 22 November 1974)Gleijeses quoting: (Agostinho Neto: Necesidades urgentes. Only a few hours after the Cuban air strike, the SADF destroyed the nearby bridge over the Cunene River. Broutens, Soviet Politbüro, dept. Some imperialists wonder why we help the Angolans, which interests we have. Thus, Angola attained official independence on 11 November 1975 and, while the stage was set for transition, a combination of ethnic tensions and international pressures rendered Angolas hard-won victory problematic. He staffed them with 480 Cuban instructors and technical advisers, nearly five times the number the MPLA had requested.

Worse, the growing numbers of Cuban troops had derailed the CIA's plans and the administration seemed at a loss what to do next. On 8 June 1988 the SADF called up 140,000 men of the reserves (Citizen Force), giving an indication of how serious the situation had become.In June 1988 the Cubans prepared to advance on Calueque starting from Xangongo and Tchipa. Attempts to revive Angolan coffee and sugar cane production soon failed due to the spread of war with UNITA. Two weeks later, the U.S. Senate, in the wake of America’s recent withdrawal from Vietnam, passed the Clark Amendment, which called for shutting down the CIA Angola program that had been operated in collaboration with South Africa.

On 20 December the UN Security Council passed yet another resolution (546) demanding withdrawal and reparations by South Africa. 20,000 troops stationed south of the It was only after the battle at Cuito Cuanavale that the Botha government showed a real interest in peace negotiations.The Cubans were the driving force behind the negotiations in the final phase beginning in July 1988. In protest, France and shortly after Canada, left the UN Contact Group.

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